Qualification > Reference Material
Biology Guide for May/June 2011
WARRIOR:
COMPLETING ENZYMES
Factors affecting enzyme reaction 1.Temp 2. Ph Concentration
Temprature
As you increase temperature means more collisions between molecules so more reactions!!! But the optimum temperature for the is 35-40.Above this temperature reactions slow down rapidly until 60* where the enzyme denatures. <-- This means active site can no longer accept the substrate molecule.
Ph
Most enzymes have a small range of Ph where it will maintain the correct active site but above or below this pH the active site shape changes.-->DENTATURED<--
Conc.<---Obv as you increase conc , rate of reaction increases
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Enzymes in germination
Baby seeds contain enzymes for germination. They have Carbohydrayses to break down starch into glucose and Protease to break down Protein into amino acids.Seed respires glucose for energy which is released by respiration and amino acids are transported to the root and shoot tips where they are used for growth
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Enzymes in Biological Washing products
Washing powders contain enzymes in order to remove stains ( of Protein,fat,), therefore they contrain protease and lipase.The enzymes breaks down insoluble organic molecules iinto soluble ones!This has two effects
1.The stain loses its colour as its soluble
2.Since they are soluble they dissolve in the water and are lost
NOTE : DISHWASHING LIQUID ALSO CONTAINS AMYLASE TO GET RID OF STICKY STARCH <--PANCAKE (l)
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Enzymes in the food industry
SEE ATTACHED ( MADE BY GG-GOLDEN GIRL-) Thanks :D
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Enzymes and biotechnology
Here is a very concise explanation that will earn you full marks
* It is used in fermentation.Source of enzyme will be yeast fungus and bacteria.You have to provide them with a suitable feedstock
* Conditions- Have to be air bubbled(aerobic conditions and stirring to prevent settling.They will grow and reproduce rapidly
* NOTE**Extracellular=enzymes Extracted from filtered feedstock and can be used.Intracellular:enzymes + Microbes filtered then crushed and extracted.
WARRIOR:
No problem Kimo. Glad you appreciate it. Just one favour, could to carefully proof-read them? ;) Thanks. :)
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•Size of specimens
Normally asked in paper 6- you are asked to draw a sketch of a specimen in the question and calculate its magnification. However it is important to know it for other papers as well.
Formula to calculate magnification
Magnification = Drawing size
__________
Actual size
M = D/A
Mnemonic --> MAD : MA = D (Magnification * Actual size = Drawing size)
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•Movement in and out of cells
Diffusion - Movement of molecules from their higher concentration to their lower concentration down a concentration gradient.
Eg. Deodorant sprayed at one corner of room spreads the rest of the place, exchange of gasses in lung alveoli, potassium permanganate in water (Google for more- I can't think of any :P ) Try this
Rate of diffusion depends on two things - concentration and surface area. Larger the conc. and area, diffusion occurs at a greater rate.
Describe the importance of diffusion of gases and solutes and of water as a solvent
Importance of diffusion of gases - I presume would be- Diffusion of oxygen (in animals) in the alveoli and tissues. Also the diffusion of carbon dioxide out of the alveoli and tissues. Also holds for plants.
Importance of diffusion of gases : (by Deadly_king)
Carbon dioxide and Oxygen diffuse in and out of leaves. They are required for both respiration and photosynthesis (the two most important processes for life to occur).
Diffusion of solutes : (By Deadly_king)
Transport of materials. Water or the solution acts as transport medium. Example : blood
Water as a solvent : (By deadly_king)
1. This is important as it allows ions and polar molecules to move freely within itself. Some specific ions are essential for survival of plants (e.g). They dissolve in water to get it specific cells.
2. Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse within a layer of moisture around mesophyll cells in order to get in. It facilitates diffusion.
Again water acts as a transport medium.
Importance of diffusion of solutes - Salts dissolved in water taken in by plants. Nutrients, ions dissolve in water which are absorbed during digestion.
Active Transport - movement of ions in or out of a cell through the cell membrane, from a region of their lower concentration to a region of their higher concentration against a concentration gradient, using energy in the form of ATP.
e.g. ion uptake by root hairs and uptake of glucose by epithelial cells of villi.
Osmosis - the diffusion of water molecules from a region of their higher concentration (dilute solution) to a region of their lower concentration (concentrated solution), through a partially permeable membrane.
Eg. Water uptake by roots of plants.
OSMOSIS IN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS ( attached ).
I kno the quality is crap but thats the best information in two pages i can find!!! sorry !
just zoom in and a miracle will happen!
WARRIOR:
Nutrition: Taking in of nutrients that contain organic materials and mineral ions, which have raw materials or energy for growth and tissue repair.Absorbing and assimilating them
Carbohydrates-Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen
3 types Simple sugars(glucose)-->Complex sugars(sucrose)-->Polysachharides(Glycogen<starch)
for energy - for storage
Uses: For energy.
Fats or lipids-Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen
2 types : Fatty acids(fats)(saturated) and Glycerol(oils)(unsaturated)
Uses: To make hormones.Structural part of cell membrane, insulator,can be used as an energy store.
Proteins-Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen + Sulphur & Nitrogen
Amino acids
Uses: Enzymes, anti bodies , muscle cells , haemoglobin , hormones , hair nails and claws.
Vitamins- C & D
VIT C: Found in citrus fruits. Concerned with maintenance and manufacture of connective tissue.Lack: skin covered with bruises,bleeding gums and anaemia.
VIT D:Found in milk,cheese,butter.Concerned with absorption of calcium saltes in alim canal and deposition into bones and teeth.Lack:Soft bones causing rickets in children.
Mineral Salts
Calcium:Found in milk,chees,bread.For healthy bones and teeth.Lack:Soft and brittle bones and teeth.Rickets
Iron:Found in liver,egg,yolk.To mean haemoglobin.Anaemia-not enough red blood cells so person always tired without enough energy
Fibre/Roughage
Cannot be digested.Causes food to pass through gut more quickly,excercises gut muscles and prevents constipation and in long term, cancer of bowel
This is because it cant be digested to it accumulates and pushes food faster which means they food spends little time in alimentary canal which is good.Why?
Because if they spend long time , water is absorbed from them causing to make dry faeces (constipation) and toxins from food have more time to irritate gut causing bowl cancer.
Water-To maintain correct watter and salt balanc , to allow reactions to occur and for trasport within organism
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To make yoghurt ( Lactobacillus & streptococcus )
1. Milk boiled and cool for sterilisation.
2.Culture bacteria added-fermentation-Lactobacillus + milk sugar makes lactic acid(sours and curdels milk)
4.Streptococcus improves flavour and rexture of the yoghurt,making it buttery
5.Regrigerate: stop any further fermentation
To make SINGLE CELL PROTEIN ( microbe , yeast and algae )
1.Feedstock-agriculture waste-for microbs to feed on 'nutrients'
2.Aeration-oxygen-Bubbled through to encourage aerobic resp
3.Microbes multiply
4.Microbes seperated from liquid feedstock and dried an added to animal feed.
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ADDITIVES
Advantages: Longer shelf/storage time.Enhances flavour.Improves appearance.Emulsifier.Slows down oxidation.
Disadvantages:Hyperactivity,mood swings , cancer , headaches , allergies , headaches , skin rash etc. anything you can imagine :p but dont go to HIV PLEASE :d:d:d:d
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FOOD TESTS
Iodine : Iodine solution ( orange brown in colour ).If test is +ve turns Blue Black
Reducing sugar: Benedict's reagent( copper sulfate ) Blue in colour. If test is +ve turns red
NOTE *--Requires boiling in water bath
Protein:Biuret test ( Copper sulfate + pottassium hydroxide ) Purple in colour. If test is +ve turn mauve/lilac
Fats: Emulsion test. Add absolute ethanol to the fat and stir to dissolve. Add an equal amount of distilled water. If you observe milky white emulsion then it is posotive
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
* Defined as the fundamental process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light.Afcourse you have to know the equation.
Chlorophyl traps light energy and converts it into chemical energy for the formation of carbohydrates and their subsequent storage as starch.
* The term limiting factor means something in the environment in such short supply that it restricts life processes.For example in photosynthesis when you have enough light intensity but not enough of carbon dioxide ( very little ) , photosynthesis will continue but it will be slow rate and less glucose will be produced!
* All you have to know about green houses is that its to prevent limiting factors. For examples if CO2 is too low , sensors automatically detect it and burn wood to release enough C02.In case of light , if there is insufficient , artificial turns on , or if it is in excess blinds are put to prevent light from entering. HIGH OR LOW TEMP , A/C / HEATERS etc.[/color]
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Leaf Structure Attached
You need to know that chloroplast can move about within the cell to optimize light absorption or if light is too much they move away
waxy cuticle-Prevents water loss ( upper lower epidermis ) controls water and gas movement through stomatal opening
Mesophyl-Palisade-Photosynthesis centre
Spongy-Site of transpiration and gas diffusion
How guard cells function?
During day plant converts starch to glucose to make guard cell's water potential decrease , therefore water rushes in causing the guard cells to become turgid and forcing an uneven thickening causing the stomata to open. In the night vice versa (glucose -->starch )
( see attached )
Mineral Requirements
Nitrogen-For amino acids ( growth & repair ) . If lacked- Plant will be stunted growth and have small , pale leaves.
Magnesium-to make chlorophyll. If lacked- Plant will be small with yellow leaves
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Balanced diet-When you eat right amounts of the right nutrient
Malnutrition-When you eat an unbalanced diet where one or more parts of the diet is either deficient or excess.
Alimentary canalIngestion-taking in substances into the body through the mouth
Egestion-passing out of food that has not been digested,as faeces through anus
WARRIOR:
I am bumping this so i can put as much as i can of the syllabus in one page .
WARRIOR:
I am bumping this so i can put as much as i can of the syllabus in one page .
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