IGCSE/GCSE/O & A Level/IB/University Student Forum

Qualification => IGCSE/ GCSE => Reference Material => Topic started by: WARRIOR on September 11, 2010, 08:48:33 am

Title: Biology Guide for May/June 2011
Post by: WARRIOR on September 11, 2010, 08:48:33 am

By the way THIS GUIDE IS SET UP BY ME AND VIN ( CURRENTLY PERCY JACKSON )

Hi Guys , I am going to make this biology guide for the exam in the summer. This is going to take ages and i will need your help . Im going to right my conclusions as i go through curriculum every time i study biology. I do this because it helps me get the information thoroughly in my mind because repetition is the only way to master things and also for people who find difficulties in their Biology books :P.

Anyway i wish everyone goodluck in the exams and please keep criticising the work written because i keep forgetting stuff. Thanks

Classification

The 5 'KINGDOMS' we classify all living organisms are 1.Animals 2. Plants 3. Prokaryotes 4. Protoctista 5. Fungi
Prokaryotes:unicellular organisms that lack nucleus i.e BACTERIA/Protoctista:Unicellular organisms that have nucleus i.e Amoeba.Algae
   Remember that viruses dont fit in any kingdom as they dont show any characteristics of life except reproduction.
   To classify we follow this sequence , in this example im using a Lion ( Panthera Leo ) as classification =
Kingdom(animalia)-->Phylum(Chordata)-->Class(Mammalia)-->Order(Carnivora)-->Family(Felidae)-->Genus(Panthera)-->Species(Panthera Leo)
Note : (As we go this way --> The similarities between animals increase and differences decrease. )

Binomial system of classification : System which the scientific name of an organism is made of 2 parts showing genus and species ( Panther Leo )
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  We have to know the characteristics of the following : Kingdom:Animals, Phylum:Vertebrates/chordates.
Class : Fish - Stream lined shaped.They breathe through gills.Fins for locomotion.Later line detects vibration in water.Damp overlapping scales.Lay Jelly-Like shell-less eggs.
   :Amphibians-Visible ear drums.Damp Moist skin (no scales).Lay shell-less eggs.The young breathe by gills
   :Reptiles-Dry scales on body.Sunken ear drums.Lay leathery shelled eggs
   :Birds-Body covered by feathers.Have beak or bill.Have scales on legs.Lay Hard shelled eggs.
   :Mammals-Have fur/hair/whiskers.Have different types of teeth.Have external ears ( pinnae ).Mammary glands.Give birth to live young.Feed their young on milk.
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   We have to know the classification of monocotyledons and dicotyledon
   A cotyledon are also called SEED LEAVES.They act as a food store for the seed.
   : Monocots- 1 Cotyledon, scatterd vascular bundles,Flowers in 3s, unbranched stem , Leaves are narrow with smooth edge and have parallel veins , fibrous roots,
Examples : Grass , maize , wheat.
   : Dicotyledon : 2 cotyledon,vascular bundles for a ring , Flowers in 5s, Branched stems, broad leaves with pointed ends and have branched veins,have tap roots,
Examples : potato , Rose , radnelion , Oak tree
Click here to see an image of both http://www.google.com.kw/imgres?imgurl=http://image.wistatutor.com/content/diversity-living-organisms/dicot-brassica-campestris-monocot-zea-mays-type-of-angiospermae.jpeg&imgrefurl=http://www.tutorvista.com/topic/example-of-monocot-seed&usg=__lGwUQJDYS2qxHYwCjYQ81s_5slM=&h=331&w=461&sz=31&hl=en&start=24&zoom=1&tbnid=vqCcSPMOCOHYBM:&tbnh=119&tbnw=166&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dmonocotyledon%2Bvs%2Bdicotyledon%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN%26biw%3D1242%26bih%3D726%26tbs%3Disch:10,327&um=1&itbs=1&iact=rc&dur=506&ei=g3qdTJSdC4KUjAfB87XADQ&oei=d3qdTK7LB8TTjAfP_5SBDQ&esq=2&page=2&ndsp=25&ved=1t:429,r:1,s:24&tx=73&Thank You=41&biw=1242&bih=726 (http://www.google.com.kw/imgres?imgurl=http://image.wistatutor.com/content/diversity-living-organisms/dicot-brassica-campestris-monocot-zea-mays-type-of-angiospermae.jpeg&imgrefurl=http://www.tutorvista.com/topic/example-of-monocot-seed&usg=__lGwUQJDYS2qxHYwCjYQ81s_5slM=&h=331&w=461&sz=31&hl=en&start=24&zoom=1&tbnid=vqCcSPMOCOHYBM:&tbnh=119&tbnw=166&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dmonocotyledon%2Bvs%2Bdicotyledon%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN%26biw%3D1242%26bih%3D726%26tbs%3Disch:10,327&um=1&itbs=1&iact=rc&dur=506&ei=g3qdTJSdC4KUjAfB87XADQ&oei=d3qdTK7LB8TTjAfP_5SBDQ&esq=2&page=2&ndsp=25&ved=1t:429,r:1,s:24&tx=73&Thank You=41&biw=1242&bih=726)<--here
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We have to know the characteristics of 1.Bacteria 2.Fungi 3. Virus

Bacteria:Unicellular.Seen by powerful light microscope.Many have slime capsule and flagellum.Have 'Bacterial' cell wall(made of protein,sugar,fat).Have cell membrane,cytoplasm but no organelles.Have singular circular 'Bacterial' Chromosome.Examples: Spirals(spirilli),Spherical(cocci),Rods(Bacilli)

   Fungi:Multicellular,Macroscopic,Multinucleate.Made of microscopic basic units called Hyphae rather than the cell.Hyphae join together to form a mycelium.They have septa instead of cell walls.Cell wall is made of chitin.They have cell membrane,cytoplasm,organelles and vacuoles.Examples : Mushroom ,yeast , mould fungi.
   Virus:Acellular.Can be seen by an electron microscope.Form crystalline structure outside of host cell.Have a protein coat called capsid made up of small units called capsomeres.No nucleus,cytoplasm,membrane or organelles.Have a central core of nucleic acid-either DNA/RNA.Examples: HIV,common cold,Measles
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   We have to know the classification of Phylum ( Arthropods* ), ( Molluscs ) ( Annelids ) ( Nematodes)
   Arthropods have Classes : Insects, Arachnids , Molluscs , Crustacians , Myriapods
   ALL ARTHROPODS HAVE : EXOSKELETON , JOINTED LEGS , SEGMENTED BODIES
   YOU HAVE TO KNOW HOW TO DRAW ALL OF THEM
     : Insects -Body divided into 3 parts:Head, thorax , abdomen- 1 Pair of compound eyes, 1 pair of antennae, 1or2 Pair of wings, 3 pairs of legs.
   : Arachnids-Body divided into 2 parts:Head and Cephalothorax( thorax + abdomen )-4 Pairs of simple eyes, No antennae,4 pairs of jointed legs, Spinavette.
   : Myriapods ( Centipedes and Millipedes ): Both have well defined head , 1 pair of simple eyes and 1 pair of antennae
   :Centipedes :Flattened body , are carnivore and have 1 pair of legs per segments
   : Millipedes : Cylindrical body , are herbivores and have 2 pair of legs per segment
   : Crustaceans:Body into 2 parts: Head and cephalothorax, 1 pair of compunds eyes, 2 pairs of antennae, 5 or more pairs of legs, carapace ( outer covering ) made of CaC03
   Annelids: Cylindrical ring-like segmented body and have 2 pair of chaetae or bristle(to help them move)per
segment,Have protein cuticle. Ex. Earthworm, leeches, RINGWORMS
   Nematodes: No segmets, No chaetae, they are long thin cyllyndrical animals that are pointed on both ends and they are endoparasites.Have protein cuticle. Ex. Round worms , the ones that live in your stomach and the doctor would have to stick something up your bottom and try to pull it out ! beautfil scene!
   Molluscs:Body divided into 3:Head,Hump, Muscular foot.Soft and unsegmented bodies.Snails have shell covering the hump.Snails also have radula(rough tongue to scrape food off plants). Octopuses have shell inside body. Some have gills
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Define the terms: (MRS GREN <--Mnemonic ) These definitions are from the curriculum content itself.
• Nutrition as taking in of nutrients which are organic substances and mineral ions, containing raw materials or energy for growth and tissue repair, absorbing and assimilating them
• Excretion as removal from organisms of toxic materials, the waste products of metabolism (chemical reactions in cells including respiration) and substances in excess of requirements
• Respiration as the chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules in living cells to release energy
• Sensitivity as the ability to detect or sense changes in the environment (stimuli) and to make responses
• Reproduction as the processes that make more of the same kind of organism
• Growth as a permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell number or cell size or both
• Movement as an action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of position or place

THE NEXT PART OF THE SYLLABUS IS COVERED BY VIN(PERCY JACKSON) BELOW
which is this
State that living organisms are made of cells
• Identify and describe the structure of a plant cell
(palisade cell) and an animal cell (liver cell), as
seen under a light microscope
• Describe the differences in structure between
typical animal and plant cells
Relate the structures seen under the light
microscope in the plant cell and in the animal
cell to their functions

Title: Re: Biology Guide for May/June 2011
Post by: elemis on September 12, 2010, 09:47:45 am

+rep for all the hard work ;)

Title: Re: Biology Guide for May/June 2011
Post by: Deadly_king on September 12, 2010, 11:45:25 am

thanks a lot dude.........very kind of ya :)

Title: Re: Biology Guide for May/June 2011
Post by: Vin on September 14, 2010, 04:58:28 pm

•Binomial system of nomenclature (Linnaean system)

The scientific name of an organism is made up of two parts - Genus name and the species name.

Homo sapiens

Only the first word is capitalised.
Written in italics
First word - genus name (Homo)
Second part - Species name (sapiens)

•Simple keys - use simple dichotomous keys based on easily identifiable features.

Lock and Key method:

Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts.

(http://i928.photobucket.com/albums/ad127/vin1094/Lockandkeysvg.png)

[Right-click > View image]

1.The molecule of substance (substrate) fits the enzyme perfectly at the active site.
2.The enzyme then 'bends' and deforms the substrate.
3. The substrates are then released in the form of products (simpler molecules)

[This is a catabolic reaction]

(http://www-users.york.ac.uk/~mal503/common/thesis/jpegimages/enzymes.jpg)

(Omit stage 1)

1.The substrates fits the corresponding enzyme perfectly.
2. Then the enzyme 'bends' and binds the substrates into one whole substance.

[This is an anabolic reaction]

Cell - is defined as the structural and functional unit of life.

•Animal Cell.

(http://www.microbelibrary.org/microbelibrary/files/ccImages/Articleimages/cummings/1236-DSCN1998.JPG)

Shows the liver cells in humans. It is important to know all the parts of the cells and their corresponding functions.

Cytoplasm - thick liquid part of the cell which accommodates different structures known as organelles - ribosomes (build up cell's proteins), mitochodria (main source of energy of the cell- mainly by respiration).

Cell membrane - semi-permeable layer around the cytoplasm which cleaves the whole cell. First layer for the animal cell. Allows only specific substances to enter into the cell (Oxygen, water, food) and waste products are allowed to leave.

Nucleus - as called the 'brain' of the cell, is usually seen as a rounded structure enclosed in a membrane and embedded in the cytoplasm. Function is to control the metabolic processes of the cell.

•Plant Cell

(http://www.dr-sanderson.org/images/palisade%20cell.jpg)

Shows a palisade cell of a plant.

Cell Wall - Outermost layer of a plant cell. Fully permeable- allows all substances to enter. It is made of cellulose.

Cell membrane - Like animal cells, plant cells also have cell membrane.

Vacuole - these are large fluid-filled space containing a variety of sugars, salts, pigments and waste products.

Chloroplast - Contains the green pigment called chlorophyll which plays a key role in photosynthesis. Are present in large numbers and are mobile.

Foot Note:: The plant cell contain many organelles called plastids which are not present in animal cells. If these contain chlorophyll they are called chloroplasts. Other plastids contain starch, used as a food store.

Key differences between Plant and Animal Cells.

Plant Cell
|
Animal Cell

1. Outermost layer - cell wall

1.Outermost layer - cell membrane (do not have cell wall)

2.More, larger vacuoles

2. Less and smaller or no vacuoles

3.Contain plastids

3. Do not contain plastids

4. Rectangular (fixed shape)

4. Irregular shape

5. Centrioles present in all animal cells

5. Centrioles -Only present in lower plant forms.

6. FOOD STORAGE- STARCH.

6. FOOD STORAGE -GLYCOGEN GRANULES.

FOOD STORAGE -GLYCOGEN GRANULES

Also check this (http://www.diffen.com/difference/Animal_Cell_vs_Plant_Cell)

Title: Re: Biology Guide for May/June 2011
Post by: WARRIOR on September 14, 2010, 05:18:18 pm

• Relate the structure of the following to their functions:
• ciliated cells – in respiratory tract
• root hair cells – absorption
• xylem vessels – conduction and support
• muscle cells – contraction
• red blood cells – transport
   :Ciliated cells-Most commonly found in the respiratory system.Consist of hundreds of Ciliated cells(have millions of tiny hairs) and Goblet cellsThe cilia beats in unison in the same direction sweeping the mucus formed by the goblet cells(which traps dust and bacteria from trachea and bronchi) to the back of your throat where the mucus is swallowed or spat, this way your lungs can be clean and free from infection.
   :Root hair cells-Thin cell wall(fully permeable) which allows easy absorption,Cell membrane partially permeable to allow water in by osmosis but does not let mineral ions out(they come in by active transport),large projection increases surface area which speeds up rate at which water and mineral ions can move into cell,also have pointed tip to penetrate soil particels so be more exposed to more water and ions in solution as well as anchoring the plant to the soil
   :Xylem vessels-Basically a dead cell, no nucleas or cytoplasm or anything(to give more space to carry water) except their walls are surrounded by a very strong substance knows as LIGININ which helps support the plant and provide rigidity.Another function of xylem vessel is to transport water from roots, up the stem and into the leaves and flowers.
   :Muscle cells-Each cell has many nuclei rather than just 1.They look stripy as they are made up of many strands of protein which can slide between each other making cell much shorter so when they are grouped together as muscle fibres they can move your bones.
   :Red blood cells-Extremely small so that they could squish through capillaries,have bioconcave disc shape which gives the cell a large surface area.Also have a spongy cytoplasm so can squish through capillaries,have cell membrane and cytoplasm but no nucleus to pack in more haemoglobin also flexible

Title: Re: Biology Guide for May/June 2011
Post by: WARRIOR on September 14, 2010, 06:13:31 pm

COMPLETING ENZYMES
Factors affecting enzyme reaction 1.Temp 2. Ph Concentration

Temprature
As you increase temperature means more collisions between molecules so more reactions!!! But the optimum temperature for the is 35-40.Above this temperature reactions slow down rapidly until 60* where the enzyme denatures. <-- This means active site can no longer accept the substrate molecule.

Ph
Most enzymes have a small range of Ph where it will maintain the correct active site but above or below this pH the active site shape changes.-->DENTATURED<--

Conc.<---Obv as you increase conc , rate of reaction increases
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Enzymes in germination
Baby seeds contain enzymes for germination. They have Carbohydrayses to break down starch into glucose and Protease to break down Protein into amino acids.Seed respires glucose for energy which is released by respiration and amino acids are transported to the root and shoot tips where they are used for growth
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Enzymes in Biological Washing products
Washing powders contain enzymes in order to remove stains ( of Protein,fat,), therefore they contrain protease and lipase.The enzymes breaks down insoluble organic molecules iinto soluble ones!This has two effects
1.The stain loses its colour as its soluble
2.Since they are soluble they dissolve in the water and are lost
NOTE : DISHWASHING LIQUID ALSO CONTAINS AMYLASE TO GET RID OF STICKY STARCH <--PANCAKE (l)
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Enzymes in the food industry

SEE ATTACHED ( MADE BY GG-GOLDEN GIRL-) Thanks :D
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Enzymes and biotechnology
Here is a very concise explanation that will earn you full marks

It is used in fermentation.Source of enzyme will be yeast fungus and bacteria.You have to provide them with a suitable feedstock
Conditions- Have to be air bubbled(aerobic conditions and stirring to prevent settling.They will grow and reproduce rapidly
NOTE**Extracellular=enzymes Extracted from filtered feedstock and can be used.Intracellular:enzymes + Microbes filtered then crushed and extracted.

Title: Re: Biology Guide for May/June 2011
Post by: WARRIOR on September 14, 2010, 06:13:47 pm

No problem Kimo. Glad you appreciate it. Just one favour, could to carefully proof-read them? ;) Thanks. :)
.........................................

•Size of specimens
Normally asked in paper 6- you are asked to draw a sketch of a specimen in the question and calculate its magnification. However it is important to know it for other papers as well.

Formula to calculate magnification

Magnification =    Drawing size
   __________
       Actual size
M = D/A

Mnemonic --> MAD : MA = D (Magnification * Actual size = Drawing size)

~~=========================================================================================================~~

•Movement in and out of cells

Diffusion - Movement of molecules from their higher concentration to their lower concentration down a concentration gradient.

Eg. Deodorant sprayed at one corner of room spreads the rest of the place, exchange of gasses in lung alveoli, potassium permanganate in water (Google for more- I can't think of any :P ) Try this (http://www.spiritus-temporis.com/diffusion/examples-of-diffusion.html)
Rate of diffusion depends on two things - concentration and surface area. Larger the conc. and area, diffusion occurs at a greater rate.

Describe the importance of diffusion of gases and solutes and of water as a solvent

Importance of diffusion of gases - I presume would be- Diffusion of oxygen (in animals) in the alveoli and tissues. Also the diffusion of carbon dioxide out of the alveoli and tissues. Also holds for plants.

Importance of diffusion of gases : (by Deadly_king)
Carbon dioxide and Oxygen diffuse in and out of leaves. They are required for both respiration and photosynthesis (the two most important processes for life to occur).

Diffusion of solutes : (By Deadly_king)
Transport of materials. Water or the solution acts as transport medium. Example : blood

Water as a solvent : (By deadly_king)
1. This is important as it allows ions and polar molecules to move freely within itself. Some specific ions are essential for survival of plants (e.g). They dissolve in water to get it specific cells.
2. Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse within a layer of moisture around mesophyll cells in order to get in. It facilitates diffusion.
Again water acts as a transport medium.

Importance of diffusion of solutes - Salts dissolved in water taken in by plants. Nutrients, ions dissolve in water which are absorbed during digestion.

Active Transport - movement of ions in or out of a cell through the cell membrane, from a region of their lower concentration to a region of their higher concentration against a concentration gradient, using energy in the form of ATP.

e.g. ion uptake by root hairs and uptake of glucose by epithelial cells of villi.

Osmosis - the diffusion of water molecules from a region of their higher concentration (dilute solution) to a region of their lower concentration (concentrated solution), through a partially permeable membrane.

Eg. Water uptake by roots of plants.

OSMOSIS IN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS ( attached ).
I kno the quality is crap but thats the best information in two pages i can find!!! sorry !
just zoom in and a miracle will happen!

Title: Re: Biology Guide for May/June 2011
Post by: WARRIOR on September 14, 2010, 06:14:07 pm

Nutrition: Taking in of nutrients that contain organic materials and mineral ions, which have raw materials or energy for growth and tissue repair.Absorbing and assimilating them

Carbohydrates-Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen
3 types Simple sugars(glucose)-->Complex sugars(sucrose)-->Polysachharides(Glycogen<starch)
for energy - for storage
Uses: For energy.
Fats or lipids-Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen
2 types : Fatty acids(fats)(saturated) and Glycerol(oils)(unsaturated)
Uses: To make hormones.Structural part of cell membrane, insulator,can be used as an energy store.

Proteins-Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen + Sulphur & Nitrogen
Amino acids
Uses: Enzymes, anti bodies , muscle cells , haemoglobin , hormones , hair nails and claws.

Vitamins- C & D

VIT C: Found in citrus fruits. Concerned with maintenance and manufacture of connective tissue.Lack: skin covered with bruises,bleeding gums and anaemia.
VIT D:Found in milk,cheese,butter.Concerned with absorption of calcium saltes in alim canal and deposition into bones and teeth.Lack:Soft bones causing rickets in children.

Mineral Salts
Calcium:Found in milk,chees,bread.For healthy bones and teeth.Lack:Soft and brittle bones and teeth.Rickets
Iron:Found in liver,egg,yolk.To mean haemoglobin.Anaemia-not enough red blood cells so person always tired without enough energy

Fibre/Roughage
Cannot be digested.Causes food to pass through gut more quickly,excercises gut muscles and prevents constipation and in long term, cancer of bowel
This is because it cant be digested to it accumulates and pushes food faster which means they food spends little time in alimentary canal which is good.Why?
Because if they spend long time , water is absorbed from them causing to make dry faeces (constipation) and toxins from food have more time to irritate gut causing bowl cancer.

Water-To maintain correct watter and salt balanc , to allow reactions to occur and for trasport within organism
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To make yoghurt ( Lactobacillus & streptococcus )
1. Milk boiled and cool for sterilisation.
2.Culture bacteria added-fermentation-Lactobacillus + milk sugar makes lactic acid(sours and curdels milk)
4.Streptococcus improves flavour and rexture of the yoghurt,making it buttery
5.Regrigerate: stop any further fermentation
To make SINGLE CELL PROTEIN ( microbe , yeast and algae )
1.Feedstock-agriculture waste-for microbs to feed on 'nutrients'
2.Aeration-oxygen-Bubbled through to encourage aerobic resp
3.Microbes multiply
4.Microbes seperated from liquid feedstock and dried an added to animal feed.
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ADDITIVES
Advantages: Longer shelf/storage time.Enhances flavour.Improves appearance.Emulsifier.Slows down oxidation.
Disadvantages:Hyperactivity,mood swings , cancer , headaches , allergies , headaches , skin rash etc. anything you can imagine :p but dont go to HIV PLEASE :d:d:d:d
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FOOD TESTS
Iodine : Iodine solution ( orange brown in colour ).If test is +ve turns Blue Black
Reducing sugar: Benedict's reagent( copper sulfate ) Blue in colour. If test is +ve turns red
NOTE *--Requires boiling in water bath
Protein:Biuret test ( Copper sulfate + pottassium hydroxide ) Purple in colour. If test is +ve turn mauve/lilac
Fats: Emulsion test. Add absolute ethanol to the fat and stir to dissolve. Add an equal amount of distilled water. If you observe milky white emulsion then it is posotive
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Defined as the fundamental process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light.Afcourse you have to know the equation.
Chlorophyl traps light energy and converts it into chemical energy for the formation of carbohydrates and their subsequent storage as starch.
The term limiting factor means something in the environment in such short supply that it restricts life processes.For example in photosynthesis when you have enough light intensity but not enough of carbon dioxide ( very little ) , photosynthesis will continue but it will be slow rate and less glucose will be produced!
All you have to know about green houses is that its to prevent limiting factors. For examples if CO2 is too low , sensors automatically detect it and burn wood to release enough C02.In case of light , if there is insufficient , artificial turns on , or if it is in excess blinds are put to prevent light from entering. HIGH OR LOW TEMP , A/C / HEATERS etc.

[/color]
[/list]
Leaf Structure Attached
You need to know that chloroplast can move about within the cell to optimize light absorption or if light is too much they move away
waxy cuticle-Prevents water loss ( upper lower epidermis ) controls water and gas movement through stomatal opening
Mesophyl-Palisade-Photosynthesis centre
Spongy-Site of transpiration and gas diffusion
How guard cells function?
During day plant converts starch to glucose to make guard cell's water potential decrease , therefore water rushes in causing the guard cells to become turgid and forcing an uneven thickening causing the stomata to open. In the night vice versa (glucose -->starch )
( see attached )

Mineral Requirements
Nitrogen-For amino acids ( growth & repair ) . If lacked- Plant will be stunted growth and have small , pale leaves.
Magnesium-to make chlorophyll. If lacked- Plant will be small with yellow leaves
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Balanced diet-When you eat right amounts of the right nutrient
Malnutrition-When you eat an unbalanced diet where one or more parts of the diet is either deficient or excess.

Alimentary canal

Ingestion-taking in substances into the body through the mouth
Egestion-passing out of food that has not been digested,as faeces through anus

Title: Re: Biology Guide for May/June 2011
Post by: WARRIOR on September 14, 2010, 06:14:35 pm